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[Site] Understanding U.S. Immigration Categories
into "preference categories," and a person's category is determined by how he/she is related to ... Some of these temporary categories give people the right to ...
discipleshomemissions.org/.../RIMPacket/06ImmigrationCategories.pdf
[News] So what can Sun do?
Sun is the Rodney Dangerfield of the tech companies on the stock market - no matter what they announce, from sales gains and new products to losses and layoffs, the response is always the same: the people who make money selling IBM and Wintel shares short Sun. It's a loser: the dollars at issue favor the MS/IBM side by over a hundred to one - so it's time, I think, to pick up that ball and go ...
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Beaverton is a city in Washington County, Oregon, United States, seven miles west of Portland in the Tualatin River Valley. As of 2007, its population is estimated to be 85,560,[3] 9.1% more than the 2000 census figure of 76,129. This makes it the second-largest city in the county and Oregon's sixth-largest city. Beaverton's controversial annexation plans during the next decade are likely to result in major growth in both population and area. History According to Oregon Geographic Names, Beaverton got its name because of the settlement's proximity to a large body of water resulting from beaver dams. The area of Tualatin Valley which became Beaverton was originally the home of a Native American tribe known as the Atfalati which settlers mispronounced as Tualatin. The Atfalati population dwindled in the latter part of the 18th century, and the prosperous tribe was no longer dominant in the area by the 19th century when settlers arrived. 19th century The natives had a village called Chakeipi, meaning Place of the Beaver, and early settlers referred to it as quot;Beaverdam quot;. Early settlers include the Hall Family from Kentucky, the Denneys who lived on their claim near present-day Scholls Ferry Road and Hall Blvd, and Orin S. Allen, from western New York, who resided at SW Allen and Hall Blvd.[4] * 1847: Lawrence Hall (for whom Hall Boulevard is named) purchased 640 acres (2.6 km²) in Beaverdam and built a grist mill with his brother near present-day Walker Road. His was the first land claim in the area. * 1849: Thomas Denney came to the area and built its first sawmill; Denny Road is named after him. * 1860: A toll plank road from Portland to Beaverton was completed over a trail called Canyon Road. * 1868: Joshua Welch, George Betts, Charles Angel, W.P. Watson, John Henry and other settlers of the area laid out what is now known as Beaverton hoping they could bring a railroad to an area once described as quot;mostly swamps amp; marshes connected by beaver dams to create what looked like a huge lake. quot; * 1872: Beaverton's first post office opened under George Betts, the first postmaster, in his general store. Betts Street, where the current post office now stands, is named in honor of him. * 1893: The city of Beaverton, with a population of 400, was officially incorporated. Alonzo Cady, a local businessman, served as the first mayor. 20th century Beaverton was an early home to automobile dealerships. A Ford Motor Company dealership was established there in 1915; it was purchased by Guy Carr in 1923 and over the years Carr expanded it into several locations throughout Beaverton. In the early 1920s, Beaverton was home to Premium Picture Productions, a movie studio which produced about fifteen films. This site was later converted into an airfield known as Watts Airport and thereafter as Bernard's Airport. The town's first library opened in 1925. Originally on the second floor of the Cady building, it has moved repeatedly; in 2000 it was moved to its current location on Hall Boulevard and 5th. In the 1980s a light rail system was proposed[5] to connect Beaverton to downtown Portland, as part of Metro's plans for the region's transportation. In 1992, voters approved funding for Westside MAX; the project began construction in 1994 and was completed in 1998, with stations located at Millikan Way MAX station Merlo Road and Southwest 158th Avenue, Beaverton Creek, Beaverton Central, and the Beaverton Transit Center. 21st century In December 2004, the city and Washington County announced an quot;interim plan quot; which will lead to Beaverton becoming the second-largest city in Oregon, second only to Portland.[6] The quot;interim quot; plan actually covers a period of more than ten years; from the county's perspective[6], the plan supports its strategy of having cities and special districts provide urban services. From the city's perspective[citation needed], it supports its strategy of continued annexation, beginning with areas already surrounded by the city, which Oregon state law allows to be annexed without landowner approval. Nike led a legal and lobbying effort to resist the annexation.[7] The lobbying effort succeeded quickly, with the Oregon Legislative Assembly enacting Senate Bill 887[8] which prohibit Beaverton from annexing Nike without Nike's consent. Nike continued its legal efforts, which as of July 2006 has cost Beaverton taxpayers over $360,000.[9] The city and county also agreed to work on ending the quot;double taxation quot; of Beaverton property owners who subsidize urban services provided to residents of unincorporated area. Several nearby unincorporated neighborhoods, even some considered Portland neighborhoods, are affected during the plan's first decade, including Cedar Hills, West Slope, Raleigh Hills and Garden Home. Property owned by Providence St. Vincent Medical Center, and Tektronix would also be affected. Neighborhoods affected after the plan's first ten years include Bethany, Cedar Mill, and Aloha. If all areas covered by the plan were to be immediately incorporated into Beaverton, the city's present-day population would be 280,000. Many of these neighborhoods actively oppose annexation because of Beaverton's higher taxation and controversial policing methods (including undercover seatbelt enforcement and photo radar). Court and electoral fights could delay Beaverton's annexation plans. In 2006, the Murrayhill Little League baseball team qualified for the 2006 Little League World Series, the first Oregon team in 48 years to go that far. Murrayhill advanced to the semifinals before losing; the third-place game was rained out and not rescheduled. In addition, a Junior Softball team from Beaverton went to 2006 World Series in Kirkland, Washington, ending in sixth place. Economy Reser's Fine Foods, processor and distributor of fresh prepared foods, has headquartered in Beaverton since 1960. Leupold amp; Stevens, maker of rifle scopes and other specialty optics, has been located in Beaverton since 1968. Beaverton is home to the world headquarters of Nike, Inc. Its headquarters are located on an unincorporated area inside, but excluded from, Beaverton city limits. Cedar Hills Crossing is a shopping mall within the city of Beaverton. As part of the Silicon Forest, Beaverton is the home to numerous technology organizations and companies. Including: * Open Source Development Labs and the * Linux Technology Center of IBM (formerly Sequent Computer Systems).[10] * Tektronix * Maxim Integrated Products Geography Beaverton is located at [show location on an interactive map] 45°28′47″N, 122°48′36″W (45.479686, -122.809954)[11]. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 16.3 sq mi (42.3 km²), none of which is covered with water. Demographics As of the census[1] of 2000, there were 76,129 people, 30,821 households, and 18,646 families residing in the city. The population density was 4,664.5/sq mi (1,801.1/km²). There were 32,500 housing units at an average density of 1,991.3/sq mi(768.9/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 78.31% White, 9.65% Asian, 1.74% Black or African American, 0.67% Native American, 0.36% Pacific Islander, 5.53% from other races, and 3.74% from two or more races. 11.12% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 30,821 households out of which 32.3% had children younger than age 18 living with them, 46.8% were married couples living together, 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.5% were non-families. 29.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.07. In the city the population was spread out with 25.0% under the age of 18, 10.6% from 18 to 24, 35.2% from 25 to 44, 20.3% from 45 to 64, and 9.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females there were 97.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.9 males. The median income for a household in the city was $47,863, and the median income for a family was $60,289. Males had a median income of $41,683 versus $31,204 for females. The per capita income for the city was $25,419. About 5.0% of families and 7.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.5% of those under age 18 and 6.8% of those age 65 or over. Education The public schools of Beaverton are part of the Beaverton School District. Private schools in the area include German American School, Holy Trinity School, Jesuit High School, Saint Cecilia Grade School, Southwest Christian School, Valley Catholic School, Valley Catholic Middle School, and WoodHaven School. Colleges and universities * Cambridge College institute of technology
[Video] Retired at age 28
[Post] Barely Legal
In a recent interview, Chertoff defended his hard-line approach, saying, “We are not going to be able to satisfy the American people on a legal temporary-worker program until they are convinced that we will have a stick as well as a ... [Site] Property Owners' Legal Duty to Prevent Injury - Real Estate
... these categories of people, the legal duty owed to each category is different. ... what a person of ordinary intelligence and judgment would do under the ...
realestate.findlaw.com/homeownership/home-health-safety/...
[News] Outdoor Rink Moves Forward, Questions Remain
Work at the Aurora Ice Association (AIA) outdoor ice rink is progressing quickly, but some East Aurorans are questioning whether the village is correct in allowing the work to go forward without going through a permit process or approving a development plan. The Residents for Rink Relocation (RRR) are asking the Zoning Board of Appeals to consider an appeal concerning the legal opinion on which ...
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BMS Light to Unite for World AIDS Day 2006 a href= http://LightToUnite.org LightToUnite.org /a ( a href= http://blog.seeminglee.com/2007/09/bms-light-to-unite-for-world-aids-day.html video demo /a ) b Legal Review Document: Z6-I0054L2 /b (38 Pages) + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1429635307/ 1: Site Module: 500x126 static placement for Reyataz.com /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1430515032/ 2: Site Module: 500x126 static placement for Sustiva.com /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1430515396/ 3: Light a candle: Introduction Animation /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1429641729/ 4: Light a candle: Interaction Prompt /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1430516936/ 5: Light a candle: User lights candle /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1429643171/ 6: Light a candle: Thank You /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1429644245/ 7: UI Narrative: Tell a friend: Frame 1 /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1430519734/ 8: UI Narrative: Tell a friend: Frame 2 /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1430520968/ 9: UI Narrative: Tell a friend: Frame 3 /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1429647223/ 10: UI Narrative: Tell a friend: Frame 4 /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1430522350/ 11: UI Narrative: Donate More /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1430523016/ 12: UI Narrative: Share your story /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1429649609/ 13: UI Narrative: Read a story: Frame 1 /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1430525088/ 14: UI Narrative: Read a story: Frame 2 /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1430526124/ 15: UI Narrative: Banner Ads: Reyataz /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1430527292/ 16: UI Narrative: Banner Ads: Sustiva /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1429653783/ 17: Actionable Items: Read a story: Select story /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1429655371/ 18: Actionable Items: Read a story: Story panel /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1429656901/ 19: Actionable Items: Read a story: Story panel: Word Categories /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1429657771/ 20: Actionable Items: Read a story: Story Filtering /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1430532950/ 21: Actionable Items: Read a story: Copy: Keywords /a + 22: Actionable Items: Read a story: Copy [CENSORED] + 23: Actionable Items: Read a story: Copy [CENSORED] + 24: Actionable Items: Read a story: Copy [CENSORED] + 25: Actionable Items: Read a story: Copy [CENSORED] + 26: Actionable Items: Read a story: Copy [CENSORED] + 27: Actionable Items: Read a story: Copy [CENSORED] + 28: Actionable Items: Read a story: Copy [CENSORED] + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1429659513/ 29: Actionable Items: Tell a friend /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1429661027/ 30: Actionable Items: Tell a friend: Thank You /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1429662557/ 31: Actionable Items: Donate more /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1430538544/ 32: Actionable Items: Share your story /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1429664277/ 33: Actionable Items: Share your story: Copy /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1430539638/ 34: Actionable Items: Learn more /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1430540092/ 35: Actionable Items: Learn more: Copy /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1429667109/ 36: Actionable Items: Subscribe to newsletter /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1429667913/ 37: Additional Screens: Returning visitors who have already lit a candle /a + a href= http://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/1430543024/ 38: Additional Screens: Unsubscribe to newsletter /a b Awards /b + a href= http://blog.seeminglee.com/2007/09/light-to-unite-2006-best-of-web-2007.html Step Inside Design: Step Best of Web 2007 /a + a href= http://www.webaward.org/winner.asp?eid=8964 Web Marketing Association (WMA) 2007 WebAward, Outstanding Website /a + a href= http://www.healthawards.com/wwwha/ss2007winners/mp_web.htm World Wide Web Health Awards 2007: Silver /a b IconNicholson Team /b ( a href= http://IconNicholson.com IconNicholson /a / a href= http://lbi.com LBi International a ) Gregg Fisher ( a href= http://www.google.com/search?q= quot;gregg+fisher quot; Google /a / a href= http://www.linkedin.com/pub/0/bb4/38 LinkedIn /a ) Jabe Bloom ( a href= http://www.google.com/search?q= quot;jabe+bloom quot; Google /a / a href= http://www.linkedin.com/in/cyetain LinkedIn /a ) Jennifer Crowe ( a href= http://www.google.com/search?q= quot;jennifer+crowe quot; Google /a ) Hillary Savage ( a href= http://www.google.com/search?q= quot;hillary+savage quot; Google /a / a href= http://www.linkedin.com/pub/2/527/816 LinkedIn /a ) Mark Hopkins ( a href= http://www.google.com/search?q= quot;mark+hopkins quot; Google /a ) Scott Friedberg ( a href= http://www.google.com/search?q= quot;scott+friedberg quot; Google /a / a href= http://www.linkedin.com/pub/0/105/ab6 LinkedIn /a ) a href= http://www.seeminglee.com See-ming Lee /a ( a href= http://blog.seeminglee.com Blog /a / a href= http://www.google.com/search?q= quot;see-ming+lee quot; Google /a / a href= http://smlLinkedIn.com LinkedIn /a ) a href= http://www.redantenna.tv/ Stephen Baker /a aka Steve Baker ( a href= http://www.google.com/search?q= quot;stephen+baker quot; Google /a / a href= http://www.linkedin.com/pub/1/565/757 LinkedIn /a ) b Step Inside Design article /b ( a href= http://StepInsideDesign.com StepInsideDesign.com /a ) September + October 2007 Print Edition Step 2007 Best of Web Winning Sites: LightToUnite.org ( a href= http://LightToUnite.org LightToUnite.org /a ) b IconNicholson /b “Light is the metaphor for hope and knowledge,” says Gregg Fisher, vice president of Health and Life Science Practice at IconNicholson. So it only seems appropriate that the firm developed an interactive candle-lighting experience for the 2006 Light to Unite website. This annual campaign from Bristol-Myers Squibb raises awareness as well as funds for HIV/AIDS treatment and prevention in the U.S. “When people start to think about AIDS, they often think about Africa,” says See-ming Lee, art director and senior interface engineer. “It’s still a very serious disease in the United States.” — a href= http://www.michelletaute.com/ Michelle Taute /a ( a href= http://www.linkedin.com/pub/1/989/114 LinkedIn /a ) / Writer + Editor b a href= http://blog.seeminglee.com/2007/09/light-to-unite-2006-best-of-web-2007.html Read Full Article /a /b b Step Inside Design Copyright Notice /b Copyright 2007 a href= http://StepInsideDesign.com Step Inside Design /a . All rights reserved. b SML Universe /b a href= http://blog.seeminglee.com/2007/09/light-to-unite-2006-best-of-web-2007.html SML Pro Blog: Light to Unite 2006 = Best of Web 2007 / Step Inside Design /a a href= http://blog.seeminglee.com/2007/09/bms-light-to-unite-for-world-aids-day.html SML Pro Blog: BMS Light to Unite for World AIDS Day 2006 = Web Marketing Association's WebAwards 2007 Outstanding Website /a a href= http://twitter.com/seeminglee/statuses/242870732 SML Twitter: Ecstatic! /a b SML Copyright Notice /b Copyright 2007 a href= http://www.seeminglee.com See-ming Lee /a / a href= http://smlFlickr.com SML Flickr /a / a href= http://smlUniverse.com SML Universe /a . All rights reserved. /a /a
[Video] Retired at age 28
[Post] Congressman Chris Carney-the interview
As it turns out what we ended up with a piece of legislation that creates special categories for certain people. When you create special categories you excluded people, why shouldn’t young mothers be included in a category or special ... [Site] People - TinyPic - Free Image Hosting, Photo Sharing & Video Hosting
Categories. All Categories / People Images. People Videos. Lauren ... Blog. Verify a Link. Promote TinyPic. About. Terms. Legal & Privacy. Developer. Help? ...
tinypic.com/categories/people
[News] News Categories
This time no one behaved badly during the state visit. Sometimes even thoroughly right-wing politicians don’t behave like swashbucklers, but move with the appropriate diplomatic finesse. That was certainly the case during Silvio Berlusconi’s latest visit to Libya.
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Compliance training in the Protected Categories is also required for corporate compliance with federal guidelines. Register for a Course Demo Now! Sexual harassment training addresses just one of about 10 'protected categories' that are embedded in employment law. Federal law also protects against harassment related to
[Video] Retired at age 28
[Post] Fear Mongering: Are the Uighurs "a Threat to the Public at Large"?
Finally, even assuming that each of these statutory categories were a proxy for dangerousness within the United States, and if there were evidence that the detainees fit within those categories (which there is not), that would only mean ... [Site] Legal Immigration | Center for Immigration Studies
... Sides of the Same Coin: The Connection Between Legal and ... Limit relatives' rights: Decide what categories of people to admit, then let in all who qualify ...
cis.org/Legal
[News] The Tech Awards and Lex Mundi Pro Bono Foundation Join to Support Global Innovators Using Technology to Benefit Humanity
The Tech Awards, presented by Applied Materials (Nasdaq:AMAT), and a signature program of The Tech Museum of Innovation, today announced it has entered into a partnership with the Lex Mundi Pro Bono Foundation, a non-profit organization that helps social entrepreneurs find and retain free legal assistance through Lex Mundi's global network of first-class independent law firms. With this ...
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trust, cohesion and teamwork are decisive factors in our success on operations. We rely upon leadership at all levels, and the effective contribution of every individual to achieve this. The nature of the Infantry role procludes a number of categories of people, specifically women and the disabled. The very nature of the work that is undertaken and the fact that all
[Video] Retired at age 28
[Post] Addressing the American and Canadian Voters from Abroad
Was there an overriding issue in 1933 when the Germans voted into power the Nazi Party, with its attractive economic policies, but in spite of Hitler’s position that certain categories of people (Jews and others) were ‘Unmenschen’ ... [Site] ArchVision RPC Content Categories
Moving Casual People Vol 3. Moving School Children Vol 1. Moving Travel People Vol 1 ... legal notices. RPC All ACCESS. The content you want, when you want it. ...
www.archvision.com/ContentCategories.cfm?Category=1
[News] Noelie Harmon: A conscious boutique
On Baton Rouge’s Corporate Boulevard, a new type of boutique has opened up. Noelie Harmon considers itself to be a conscious boutique. At the store they only sell fair trade items, which are items that come from companies that give legal, living wages to their workers.
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Click here to post your comments (anonymously) and help build an insider's profile of this national giant, using the categories listed below as a guideline. Overview Omnipresent national giant Eversheds is among the largest firms in the UK more or less however you emasure it - revenue, fee earners, offices in Norwich. The firm placed 8th in
[Video] Retired at age 28
[Post] New Law and Legal Article: San Francisco Bankruptcy Attorney-Find ...
Looking for the right San Francisco bankruptcy attorney This is definitely a difficult process, and most people don't even know where to start their search other than the yellow pages or the internet. [Site] premises liability personal injury attorney orlando florida legal ...
A property owner, or a person in possession of property, has responsibilities ... these categories of people, the legal duty owed to each category is different. ...
hansonandhanson.com/CM/.../Personal-Injury/Premises-Liability.html
[News] He Counts Your Words (Even Those Pronouns)
James W. Pennebaker looks at every single word people use even the tiny ones and is leading a resurgent interest in text analysis.
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The circle of adoption involves three distinct categories of people — the birthparent(s), the child, and the adoptive parents. Underpinning any adoption are legal processes. For all
[Video] Retired at age 28
[Post] SADDAM HUSSEIN'S SPEECH ON WOMEN - 1971
In talking about the objective circumstances, this category of people rejects the revolutionary programme, which is meant to alter the conditions standing in the way of socialism. Yes, we have to understand the social conditions but we ... [Site] Tibet Justice Center - Legal Materials on Tibet - Governmental and NGOs ...
... the People's Republic of China can be fitted into three broad legal categories: ... evidently linked to the specific legal category under which they are cited; ...
www.tibetjustice.org/materials/govngo/govngo1.html
[News] McGee, Adkins competing for common pleas court judge
Montgomery County Common Pleas Judge Frances McGee, a former prosecutor who became one of Gov. Ted Strickland's first judicial appointments last year, faces the electorate for the first time on Nov. 4.
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Could the Cambodian people forgive the Khemer Rouge? HOPES, FEARS, AND AN ANSWER TO THE QUESTION OF GENOCIDE by Iljas Baker The Bangkok Post May 3, 2005 The trial of surviving senior leaders of the Khmer Rouge for crimes committed during their rule from 1975-79 is now awaiting pledges to fund the stuff and operations for three years and the receipt of actual contributions for the first year. The cost of the trial is estimated at $56.3 million (2.22 billion baht) with the international community responsible for $43 million and Cambodia the rest. International donors have pledged $38 million to date. The trial to be conducted by Cambodian and foreign judges in a local court, has aroused both the hopes and fears of the Cambodian people. But their hopes for justice, an end to impunity and a remodelled criminal justice system are unlikely to be realised should the trial be subject to government interference. And unless the judges are fully qualified and independent, and international observers are in place, most Cambodian human rights non-government organisations see government interference as inevitable. There are also fears of a renewal of violence instigated by former Khmer Rouge leaders who feel threatened by the trial. These fears are shared by the rural population and the educated urban classes alike, and they are by no means groundless. Youk Chhang, director of the Phnom Penh based Documentation Centre of Cambodia, one of the major NGOs working for the establishment of an independent Khmer Rouge trial and preparing documentation of mass crimes, has reported receiving quot;indirect threats quot;. The centre has felt it necessary to improve security at its offices and has taken the precaution of shipping 70% of its evidence overseas. Fears of triggering psychological trauma associated with having to quot;relive quot; the Khmer Rouge era are also at the forefront of people's concerns and are beginning to be addressed by government organisations and NGOs before the trial gets under way. Although the media frequently refer to the mass killings that took place between April 17, 1975 and Jan 6, 1979 as genocide, the exact legal nature of the Khmer Rouge's crimes is still the subject of debate and one welcome outcome of this trial would be a legal decision stating what, if any, crimes satisfy the definition of genocide contained in the Genocide Convention of 1948. The Convention states that genocide means quot;any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such: Killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. quot; The UN Group of Experts for Cambodia tasked with responding to the government's 1997 request for international assistance to conduct a trial of surviving Khmer Rouge leaders stated that quot;the existing historical research justifies including genocide within the jurisdiction of a tribunal quot;. In particular, it referred to the quot;need for prosecutors to investigate the commission of genocide against the Cham, Vietnamese and other minority groups, and the Buddhist monkhood subjected to an especially harsh and extensive measure of the acts enumerated in the Convention quot;. Moreover, the experts went on to state that: quot;The requisite intent has support in direct and indirect evidence, including Khmer Rouge statements, eyewitness accounts and the nature and number of victims in each group, both in absolute terms and in proportion to each group's total population. quot; One would think that the mass killing of the Cham Muslims at least would be recognised universally as constituting genocide. After all, this is a homogenous ethnic and religious group that was specifically targeted for persecution. But there is no such consensus. Philip Short, author of a recent biography of Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot, states that the persecution of the Cham Muslims resulted from the fact they resisted the new order more than other groups. But, he believes it would be impossible to prove there was a systematic attempt to destroy the Cham Muslims. Scholars Michael Vickery, David Chandler and Serge Thion all claim the Khmer Rouge never intended the destruction of particular groups of people. Mr Chandler, for example, considered the high death toll under the Khmer Rouge as an unintended consequence of a utopian revolution and Serge Thion sees no evidence for claiming the persecution of the Cham Muslims was based on race or ethnicity. They were, he states, quot;victims of an attempt to eradicate religion, as a matter of general policy quot; that included the suppression of Christianity and Buddhism. According to William Schabas, author of Genocide in International Law, the Khmer Rouge atrocities against the Cham Muslims and other minorities are best described not as genocide but as the less heinous crimes against humanity. Mr Schabas accepts that the Cham Muslims were specifically targeted by the Khmer Rouge, but suggests the Khmer Rouge were guilty only of destroying Cham Muslim cultural institutions and forcibly assimilating them into the new order-acts that do not constitute genocide according to the Genocide Convention. Gregory Stanton, founder and president of Genocide Watch in the United States, has stated that it is wrong to claim the Cham Muslims were not victims of genocide. He believes Cham Muslims were killed at a rate double the national average. Round-ups and subsequent murders (including the burning of victims alive) were common, and whole village populations were exterminated. In one case, more than 5,000 Cham Muslims were murdered in Kampong Cham province and their bodies disposed of in a deep ravine. Mr Stanton also has stated that apart from the evidence of mass murder, it is relatively easy to prove genocide intent on the basis of the official policy of the Communist Party central committee. Ben Kiernan, founder of the Cambodian Genocide project at Yale University, has stated that Pol Pot and his group had a concern for quot;national and racial grandiosity quot; that ultimately led to the genocide of minorities such as the Chinese, Vietnamese and the Cham Muslims. Mr Kiernan believes 100,000 of a population of 250,000 Cham Muslims were killed as Cham villages all over the country were emptied. Ysa Osman, Cham Muslim author of Oukoubah: Justice for Cham Muslims Under the Democratic Kampuchea Regime and the coming The Cham Rebellion, whose brothers, sisters and numerous relatives perished under the Khmer Rouge rule, has documented extensively the persecution of the Cham Muslims. Children were separated from their parent, so they could more easily he indoctrinated, copies of the Koran and other religious texts were destroyed, Islamic schools were close and Islamic rites of worship such as daily prayer and fasting in the month of Ramadan were outlawed, as was the Cham language and the traditional style of clothing. They were forced to eat pork and many were killed for refusing. Mr Osman has calculated that between 400,000 and 500,000 Cham Muslims and it small number of foreign Islamic teachers were killed during the Khmer Rouge rule. He has also unearthed evidence the official policy was to destroy the Cham Muslims. He writes that one of his informants given responsibility by the Khmer Rouge (who did not realise he was Cham) for supervising 400 children who had been separated from their parents, was called to a meeting to plan the destruction of their enemies and heard the chairman say: quot;The enemies of Angkar come in many categories, but the biggest enemies are the Cham. The plan is to destroy them all before 1980. quot; Moreover, according to Mr Osman, a Khmer Rouge book called The Advanced Cooperative Plan stated exactly the same thing. When I spoke to Mr Osman at the Documentation Centre of Cambodia in March, he said he was confident his figures were more accurate than Mr Kiernan's as they were based on a wider range of documentary sources and on interviews with Cham Muslim survivors in every Cham village in Cambodia. He is unwilling however to call the mass killings a genocide, preferring to leave the trial judges to identify the appropriate legal terminology. The vast majority of Cham Muslim survivors have no doubt taken little interest in academic debates surrounding the atrocities of the Khmer Rouge. What is real to them is the barbarity of the killing, torture, forced starvation and religious persecution during the Khmer Rouge era. Moreover, in Islam the moral distinction between mass killings and the killing of an individual is not an obvious one. The Koran states: quot;Whosoever killeth a human being for other than manslaughter or corruption in the earth, it shall be as if he had killed all mankind. quot; Thus, whether the crimes the Khmer Rouge perpetrated against the Cham Muslims are called genocide-the quot;crime of crimes quot;, as William Schabas calls it-or the less heinous crimes against humanity, or simply murder, torture and religious persecution will probably be of more significance to international lawyers and academics than to the survivors. Mr Osman's book ends with an extract from the Koran, the last line of which is: quot;God is with those who are patient in adversity. quot; The Cham Muslims have waited decades for justice. Hopefully, the Extraordinary Chambers will finally deliver this to them by convicting and incarcerating the surviving Khmer Rouge leaders responsible for the mass atrocities. But time is running out: Pol Pot died several years ago and the remaining leaders likely to be prosecuted by the Extraordinary Chambers are mostly in their seventies.
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[News] Increased pressure in the brain leads to vision loss more often in men
A new study shows that men are more likely to lose vision as a result of a particular cause of intracranial hypertension, or increased pressure in the brain, than women with the condition. The research is published in the October 15, 2008, online issue of Neurology, the medical journal of the American Academy of Neurology.
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Photo shows His Excellency Maumoon Abdul Gayoom, President of the Republic of The Maldives, is watched by his wife Nasreena as he casts his vote at the ‘Iskandhar’ School in Malé, on 18th August 2007. Thousands of Maldivians filed into the National Stadium in Malé and waited patiently at schools and makeshift gazebos on remote islands to vote in the 18th August 2007 referendum many hailed as the tiny Indian Ocean nation's first real expression of democracy. Nevertheless, President Gayoom won an overwhelming victory in the referendum on the Maldives' future form of government, a poll seen as an informal vote of confidence in his three-decade rule of the tiny Indian Ocean nation. PHOTO with courtesy of Getty Images. Earlier this week (01st week of September, 2007) at the prestigious Condé Nast Traveller U.K. Readers’ Travel Awards, the “One amp;Only Reethi Rah Island” or the “North Malé Atoll” in The Maldives was named number one resort in the world. In addition, luxury resort was announced the winner in two other categories: Favourite Overseas Leisure Hotel, Middle East, Africa and the Indian Ocean; and Favourite Overseas Hotel Spa, Worldwide. But this is somewhat different story. A petition signed by more than 800 people requesting for a solution to the drug problems that is plaguing the Maldives has been sent to President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom last Thursday (07th September 2007). Fathmath Afiyaa, President of the ‘Society for Women Against Drugs’ (SWAD) and leading activist in the petition, said that the petition signed by 832 people requested the President to find a solution to save the Maldivian people from the threat of drugs, and to change the lenient government policies towards drug related crimes so that such crimes can be discouraged. The petition said that the real culprits behind drugs were the people involved in drug trafficking and when they were allowed to walk free it was further encouragement for other drug traffickers. “Drug addiction is not a problem faced only by the family whose member has become an addict,” the petition said. “The whole country is spiralling into chaos, with theft, assault and various other crimes being committed as a direct result of drug use. We are now resolved to do everything to show the government how much pain and suffering the public is experiencing because of it.” SWAD, an organization that had been inaugurated in November last year to fight against drugs, said that they had tried in different ways to bring the problem to the attention of the relevant authorities. However the government had not done anything to help them in their fight, the organization said. Related web links : Maldivians vote in historic Election August 18, 2007, Malé, The Maldives (Associated Press) - Thousands of Maldivians, many of them fed up with the President's nearly three-decade rule, voted 18th September 2007 at schools and makeshift gazebos in the crowded capital and on remote atolls in a poll seen as a referendum on their leader. quot;This election means freedom, quot; said Suheil Ismail, 41, after voting in a breezy, open room at a schoolhouse in the capital, Malé. a href= http://www.examiner.com/a-888496~Maldivians_Vote_in_Historic_Election.html www.examiner.com/a-888496~Maldivians_Vote_in_Historic_Ele... /a One Banner Many Voices: Malé Marches Against Drugs June 26, 2007, Malé, The Maldives (Minivan News/The Maldives) - One hundred and fifty people gathered in Malé on Tuesday to march against drug addiction. The demonstration called by the ‘Society of Women Against Drugs’ (SWAD) and backed by local Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) was organised to raise awareness and influence policy makers. a href= http://www.minivannews.com/news/news.php?id=3396 www.minivannews.com/news/news.php?id=3396 /a Women protest against drugs April 23, 2007, Malé, The Maldives (Minivan News/The Maldives) - The ‘Society for Women Against Drugs’ (SWAD) held a demonstration on Saturday (21st April 2007) protesting drug trafficking and dealing in The Maldives. a href= http://www.minivannews.com/news/news.php?id=3161 www.minivannews.com/news/news.php?id=3161 /a Reference : Official Website of President's Office, Republic of The Maldives On assuming office for a sixth term in November 2003, President Gayoom of The Maldives announced his progressive agenda for national reform. The focus areas for the current term include: (1) Strengthening democratic institutions and processes of governance, (2) Strengthening and expanding the role of the “People’s Majlis” or the Parliament, (3) Strengthening human rights protection, (4) Increasing people’s participation in the social, economic and political life of the country, (5) Expediting improvement of the legal framework required for national development, (6) Increasing the role of women in the affairs of the nation, and finally, (7) Organising and carrying out of the work of government offices with greater openness and transparency. a href= http://www.presidencymaldives.gov.mv/pages/index.php www.presidencymaldives.gov.mv/pages/index.php /a Ministry of Planning and National Development Our mission is to Plan, facilitate and co-ordinate national development towards a nation of excellence. a href= http://www.planning.gov.mv/en/ www.planning.gov.mv/en/ /a The Maldives - sunny side of life…. Not surprisingly, the Maldives has become a favourite destination for discerning travellers and divers. Your information source for the Maldives island resorts and holidays, hotels, saffari vassels and travel information - the Official Web Site of The Maldives. a href= http://www.visitmaldives.com/ www.visitmaldives.com/ /a The Maldives’ unit for the rights of children (URC) Our aim is to ensure the protection of the rights of children, rehabilitate delinquent children and children with behavioural problems, work to re-establish family relations between such children and their parents and to create awareness on child rights in the community. a href= http://www.urcmaldives.gov.mv/ www.urcmaldives.gov.mv/ /a Scout Association of The Maldives Scouting in The Maldives is one of the oldest and most accepted youth activities by the public. In mid 2005 when this Association had a workshop to develop a strategic plan, we have identified certain areas for development and set targets to achieve these goals. a href= http://www.scout.com.mv/ www.scout.com.mv/ /a Source of Main article : a href= http://www.haveeru.com.mv/english/?page=details amp;id=18211 www.haveeru.com.mv/english/?page=details amp;id=18211 /a
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[Post] The Myths of Voter Fraud
A review of news stories over a recent two year period found that reports of voter fraud were most often limited to local races and individual acts and fell into three categories: unsubstantiated or false claims by the loser of a close ... [News] MAJOR NEW ENCYCLOPEDIA FEATURES NUMEROUS MTSU SCHOLARS
Nineteen members of the MTSU community are among the accomplished contributors to a groundbreaking new reference work, The Encyclopedia of the First Amendment, published by Washington, D.C.-based CQ Press and available now through bookstores and online at www.cqpress.com.
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Fire apparatus A fire apparatus, fire engine, fire truck, or fire appliance is a vehicle designed to assist in fighting fires, by transporting firefighters to the scene, and providing them with access, water or other equipment. In some areas, the terms fire engine and fire truck represent different types of fire fighting apparatus. Types Fire engine The fire engine may have several methods of pumping the water to the fire. The most common method is to pass water through hoses to the fire, from an array of valves. The vehicle may also have a fixed pumping quot;cannon quot; (called a fire monitor or deluge), which can direct the water as pointed by the operator. The horizontal and vertical range of the monitor arrangement usually is limited and appropriate only for specific tasks, such as airport fires. Monitors have been used as water cannons for crowd control. A fire engine may have an on-board water reservoir, allowing it to fight a fire immediately upon arrival, or may be completely reliant on external sources, such as fire hydrants, water tender, river or reservoir, by using draft water suction. A development is the use of an impulse fire-extinguishing system (IFEX), in which the water is highly pressurised into a vaporous mist, creating a cooling effect that is more efficient than that of water alone.[1] A modern fire engine is usually a multi-purpose vehicle carrying professionals and equipment for a wide range of fire-fighting and rescue tasks. Therefore, most fire engines carry equipment such as ladders, pike poles, axes, Halligans, fire extinguishers, and ventilating equipment. The New York City Fire Department (FDNY) was the first to introduce the quot;squad quot; concept for an engine[citation needed] and developed the quot;rescue pumper. A typical FDNY squad has a 500 U.S. gallon (1900-L) water tank and specialized rescue equipment, but carries less hose than a standard engine.[2] Since its introduction in New York, several other American cities have adopted the vehicles, sometimes calling them rescue engines. [edit] Turntable ladder The turntable ladder, also known as an aerial ladder, or sometimes abbreviated to simply TL is the best-known form of specialized fire apparatus (sometimes known as a fire truck), and is used to gain access to fires occurring at height, where conventional ladders carried on other appliances might not reach. The name is derived from the fact that the large ladder is mounted on a turntable on the back of a truck or lorry, allowing it to pivot around a stable base, which in turn allows a much greater ladder length to be achieved). In order to increase its length, the ladder is telescopic. Modern turntable ladders are hydraulic or pneumatic in operation. A ladder also can be mounted behind the cab. This is called quot;mid ship quot;. This arrangement allows a shorter wheel base for truck, and also can be more stable in some conditions. The turntable ladder units replaced the stand alone wheel mounted long ladders which were seen on fire engines before the widespread use of hydraulics. The key functions of a turntable ladder are: * Allowing access or egress of firefighters and casualties at height * Providing a high level water point for firefighting (elevated master stream) * Providing a working platform from which tasks such as ventilation or overhaul can be executed Historic freestanding ladder on wheels - phased out to be replaced by a turntable ladder Historic freestanding ladder on wheels - phased out to be replaced by a turntable ladder While the traditional characteristic of a 'fire truck' was a lack of water pumping or storage, many modern turntable ladders have a water pumping function to them (and some have their own on board supply reservoir), and may have a pre-piped waterway running the length of the ladder, to allow the firefighters at the top a stream of water. In some cases, there may also be a monitor at the top of the ladder for ease of use. Other appliances may simply have a trackway which will hold a manually run hose reel securely, and prevent it from falling to the ground. Some turntable ladders may have a basket or platform (sometimes known as a bucket) mounted at the top of the ladder, as on a hydraulic platform, and these are called tower ladders. These can provide a secure place for a firefighter to operate equipment from, and allow multiple people to be carried (including rescued persons). A tiller truck, also known as a tractor drawn aerial, is a specialised turntable ladder appliance mounted on a semi-trailer truck. It has separate steering wheels for front and rear wheels (the steering device for the rear is sometimes a tiller rather than a true steering wheel). This truck is often used in areas with narrow streets that prevent longer single-vehicle trucks from entering. Some cities, including Los Angeles, California, San Francisco, California, Baltimore, Maryland, Seattle, Washington and New York City, New York rely heavily on them. In some areas, the turntable ladder appliance may be termed a 'hook and ladder' vehicle, as it will carry an array of ladders and hooks. Hooks are used most commonly for pulling drywall or plaster walls away from framing members to expose hidden fire, and to allow access for extinguishing the fire. Hooks can also be used for pulling siding, breaking windows, etc. Technically, any vehicle carrying hooks and ladders could be considered a hook and ladder vehicle. [edit] Quint and Quad QUINT 29 of Palm Beach County Fire-Rescue serves areas of Palm Beach County, Florida. QUINT 29 of Palm Beach County Fire-Rescue serves areas of Palm Beach County, Florida. In some areas, the turntable ladder may be known as a quad or quint, as it is capable of performing multiple tasks (pump, water tank, fire hose, aerial device, and ground ladders) with each of these functions making up one of its five (quint) or four (quad) cabilities. [edit] Hydraulic platforms Telescoping hydraulic platform mounted on firefighting appliance. Telescoping hydraulic platform mounted on firefighting appliance. A hydraulic platform, also known as articulating booms, snorkels, platform trucks or sometimes shortened to just HP, is a specialized aerial work platform designed for firefighting use. They have a number of functions, which follow the same principles as the turntable ladder, providing high level access and elevated water pump positions. Some hydraulic platforms are articulated, which allows the arm to bend in one or more places, giving it the ability to go 'up and over' an obstacle (such as a building roof). There are non-articulated platforms, based on standard aerial work platforms, although the most common type is the tower ladder (mentioned above in the Turntable ladder section). Hydraulic platforms (articulated or not) may still have a ladder arrangement fitted to the arm, primarily as an emergency measure. In some jurisdictions these can be denoted ladder platforms. Most hydraulic platforms are designed to reach a height of around 33 metres (100 feet), although larger models are capable of reaching heights of over 100 metres (328 feet).[3] Many hydraulic platforms are fitted with additional equipment in the platform itself, which can include a control panel, lighting equipment, a fixed water outlet or monitor, power outlets or compressed air outlets (allowing the fixing of rescue equipment, such as the jaws of life). Many platforms are also adapted or capable of carrying a stretcher. Some units have video systems and remote control in case of dangerous chemical fires. Some hydraulic platforms might also be designated as a quad or quint engine, as it is capable of performing multiple tasks (pump, water tank, fire hose, aerial device, and ground ladders) [edit] Aerial water towers In some instances, fire departments may have a specialised aerial water tower, the purpose of which is to deploy an elevated master stream of water, although it does not provide any access for firefighters. In most departments, this function is now performed by a hydraulic platform or turntable ladder, so this type of appliance is quite rare, and most examples of this type of unit are historical. The historical units of this type were usually manually or mechanically raised and lowered using friction drums or ratchet mechanisms.[4] [edit] Water tenders A tanker giving water to the hydraulic platform vehicle. A tanker giving water to the hydraulic platform vehicle. A water tender, which can also be known as a tanker truck or water bowser is a specialist fire appliance with the primary purpose of transporting large amounts of water to a scene. These are especially useful in rural areas where fire hydrants are not readily available. Most tenders have an on-board pumping system. This pump is often not of sufficient power to fight fires (as it is designed to be attached to a fire engine), but is more often used to draw water in to the tender from hydrants or other water sources. In some areas, the tenders are used to pump water during floods, and may be fitted with a heavier duty pump for this purpose. Most water tenders are designed to carry loads of 1000 gallons (approx. 3800 litres) or more. In the US, 1000 gallons is the requirement in the NFPA standards[5]. Some may carry up to or even upwards of 5000 gallons (more than 20 000 litres) of water - with a trailer even more [6][7][8]. [edit] Wildland fire appliances Wildland firefighting requires unique vehicles that can climb mountain roads, be self-reliant, and have high clearances for wheels and suspension. Wildland fire engines and wildland fire tenders may have lower capacities to carry water, but can be deployed to fight fires in environments where urban fire trucks would be unable to operate due to rugged terrain. In heavily forested areas, a special kind of fire truck known as a brush truck is used. They are usually trucks with off-road capabilities for traversing rough terrain in order to reach the fire. [edit] Airport crash tender Dragon 1 of Palm Beach County Fire-Rescue at Palm Beach International Airport in West Palm Beach, Florida. Dragon 1 of Palm Beach County Fire-Rescue at Palm Beach International Airport in West Palm Beach, Florida. An airport crash tender is a fire engine designed for use at aerodromes and airports in aircraft accidents. The features include a good acceleration, ability to move on rough terrains outside the runway and airport area, large water capacity, foam tank, a high-capacity pump, and water/foam monitors with a good throw distance. Newer AR-FF vehicles also incorporate Twin Agent nozzles/injection systems to inject a stream of Purple-K dry chemical into the AFFF foam stream quot;knocking-down quot; the fire faster. Some also have Halotron tanks with handlines for situations that require a clean agent to be utilized. These features give the airport crash tenders a capability to reach an airplane rapidly, and rapidly put out large fires with jet fuel involved. Some tenders have an elevated extended extinguishing arm called a Snozzle, giving a possibility to raise a water/foam cannon into the height of approx. 10 - 20 meters. Some arms have reinforced nozzles that can puncture through superficial structures of an aeroplane to fight a fire inside the fuselage. [9]. Airport crash tender using a puncture nozzle to spray inside of an airframe. At bottom left is a closeup of the head of the nozzle showing the puncture nozzle (top), a standard nozzle (bottom), a light and a thermal imager (left and right). Airport crash tender using a puncture nozzle to spray inside of an airframe. At bottom left is a closeup of the head of the nozzle showing the puncture nozzle (top), a standard nozzle (bottom), a light and a thermal imager (left and right). ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) has given standards and recommended practices on rescue fire fighting categories of civil aerodromes [10][11]. National aviation authorities may have given even further requirements on aerodrome rescue and fire services. The rescue fire services are based on a critical aircraft based on a statistical analysis of movements (take-offs and landings) on the airport. The aerodrome category is based on the size of the biggest aircraft taking a movement on the aerodrome. In addition, the number of movements of the critical aircraft is calculated, and the category can be decreased by one if the number of movements is lower than the standard describes. There are also minimum category levels based on e.g. the number of seats in the critical aircraft. Depending on the airport category, the standards determine the minimum number of rescue fire-fighting vehicles. In addition, requirements are given on the water and foam capacities, discharge rates for foam solutions, and minimum dry chemical powder (complementary agent) amounts, reserve stocks of fire fighting agents, ability to operate on rough terrain, and acceleration of the air crash tenders. The end of each runway has to be achieved in a response time of two minutes, and any part of the movement area has to be achieved in a response time not exceeding three minutes. [edit] Rescue Unit A Rescue Unit of Palm Beach County Fire-Rescue in Palm Beach County, Florida. A Rescue Unit of Palm Beach County Fire-Rescue in Palm Beach County, Florida. A heavy rescue vehicle, often referred to as a rescue company, rescue squad, heavy rescue, or simply, fire engine is a type of specialty firefighting or EMS (Emergency Medical Services) apparatus. Essentially giant toolboxes on wheels, they are primarily designed for technical rescue situations such as auto accidents, rope rescues, swiftwater rescues, or collapses. NFPA (National Fire Protection Association in the U.S.) regulation 1006 and 1670 give guidelines and regulations for the operation of heavy rescue vehicles and also state that all quot;rescuers quot; must have medical training to perform any technical rescue operation, including cutting the vehicle itself[12][13]. In most rescue environments, fire department personnel conduct rescue operations working hand-in-hand with medical personnel such as EMT or paramedics. In addition to fire brigades and rescue departments, e.g. tram or railway companies may have their own heavy rescue squads specialized to tram or train accidents [14][15]. For example, railway rescue squads may carry very specialized equipment for railway accidents like hydraulic jacks with capacity for lifting locomotives or even move them horizontally, and equipment for tank car accidents [16]. [edit] Hazardous Materials Appliances Some fire departments keep special appliances for dealing with hazardous materials. These are of several types, from those used to clean spilled oil on streets and highways, to full decontamination units, designed to clean victims and rescuers of contaminants after an incident. [edit] Logistical Support Appliances A hookloader in action in Helsinki, Finland. (Click for more facts of this unit) A hookloader in action in Helsinki, Finland. (Click for more facts of this unit) Many fire departments operate a number of vehicles in specialised logistical functions. These can be stand alone vehicles, or may be modular, such as with the use of a 'hookloader' system Sometimes hookloaders are used for seldom-used equipment. A hookloader can load a container very rapidly and act as a special unit with lower investment costs. For example, the Helsinki Rescue Department in Finland has several hookloader trucks and more than 40 containers including a water container, a hose container, an oil destruction container.[17] Containers may also carry a command post, material for catastrophes, hoses and pumps for forest fires, even field hospitals, or for example, high-power pumps. [edit] Other apparatus Other fire apparatus include: * Squad/Utility Unit * Foam Tenders/Foam Tankers * Command and Control units * Dive or Water Rescue units * Specialist tracked units[18], * Water craft support such as rigid-hulled inflatable boats, hovercraft or hydrocopters.[19][20][21] [edit] Other functions In some communities a fire apparatus, often a paramedic engine, will be used to carry first responder firefighters, paramedics or EMTs to medical emergencies because of their faster response times due to forward staging in the city compared to ambulances coming from hospitals [22][23]. This sometimes puzzles people who see a fire apparatus race past but do not see any fire, but medical calls often outnumber fire calls for such departments. Fire departments may also have lifeguards in places like Los Angeles County, CA. [edit] Design and construction The discharge and intake valves on the side of a fire engine. The discharge and intake valves on the side of a fire engine. Many fire appliances around the world are based on standard truck or lorry models, which are upgraded to the specifications required by the purchasing department. In the United States, a majority of fire trucks are specially designed from the chassis to the cab and body. This has led to the use of the term custom fire truck, as opposed to a commercial chassis and cab. Modifications a fire appliance might undergo include adjustments for higher durability, removal of any speed limiter, and adjustments for long periods of idling at a higher temperature. This may be accomplished by heavy duty suspensions, brakes, tires, alternator, transmission and cooling systems. It is also usual to upgrade the capacity of the electrics of the vehicle, in order to accommodate the use of additional electrical and electronic equipment. Fire appliances have audible and visual warnings, to protect themselves from traffic, and make themselves seen to other units at an incident. In many countries, use of the audible and visual warnings affords the driver a degree of exemption from road traffic laws (such as the right to exceed speed limits, treat red stop lights as give way etc.) and may also infer a duty on other motorists to move out of the direction of passage of the fire vehicle (or face possible prosecution). [edit] Visual warnings Visual warnings on a fire appliance can be of two types - either passive or active. [edit] Passive visual warnings A Compressed Air Foam System tanker. A Compressed Air Foam System tanker. The passive visual warnings involve the use of high contrast patterns. Older vehicles (and those in developing countries) are more likely to have their patterns painted on, whereas modern appliances often carry retro-reflective designs which reflect light from car headlights or torches. Popular patterns include 'checker board' (alternate coloured squares, sometimes called 'battenburg markings', named after a type of cake), chevrons (arrowheads - often pointed towards the front of the vehicle if on the side, or pointing vertically upwards if on the rear) or stripes (along the side - these were the first type or retro-reflective devices introduced, as the original retro-reflective material came only in tape form). In some countries, in addition to retro-reflective markings, vehicles are now painted a bright yellow or orange, although in many other countries, red remains a popular colour for fire engines. Another passive marking is the word FIRE, RESCUE or local language variant spelled out in reverse on the front of the vehicle. This enables drivers of other vehicles to more easily identify an approaching fire service vehicle in their rear view mirrors. The appliance may also display a telephone number which may be used to summon assistance, along with the name of the operating department or station identifier. [edit] Active visual warnings The active visual warnings are usually in the form of flashing coloured lights (also known as 'beacons' or 'lightbars'). These flash in order to attract the attention of other road users as the fire appliance approaches, or to provide warning to motorists approaching a stopped appliance in a dangerous position on the road. Common colours for fire warning beacons are blue and red. The beacons can be made to flash, the original method was to place a spinning mirror which moves around a light bulb, called a 'rotating beacon'. More modern methods include the use of strobe lights, which are usually brighter, and can be programmed to produce specific patterns (such as a left - gt; right pattern when parked on the left hand side of the road, indicating to other road users that they should move out away from the vehicle). There is also the more widespread use of LED flashing lights as they are low profile and low energy. More information on Emergency vehicle equipment. [edit] Audible warnings In addition to visual warnings, most appliances are also fitted with audible warnings, sometimes known as sirens, which can alert people and vehicles to the presence of an emergency vehicle before they can be seen. The first audible warnings were mechanical bells, mounted to either the front or roof of the truck. Most vehicles are now fitted with electronic sirens, which can produce a range of different noises. Fire service driving training often includes the use of different noises depending on traffic conditions and manoeuvre being performed. For instance, on a clear road, approaching a junction, the 'wail' setting may be used, which gives a long up and down variation, with an unbroken tone, whereas, in heavy slow traffic, a 'yelp' setting may be preferred, which is like a wail, but sped up. The speakers for modern sirens can be located in several places on the vehicle, including being integral to the lightbar, or hidden in the grille. Some vehicles may also be fitted with airhorn audible warnings. A development is the use of the RDS system of car radios, whereby the vehicle can be fitted with a short range FM transmitter, set to RDS code 31, which interrupts the radio of all cars within range, in the manner of a traffic broadcast, but in such a way that the user of the receiving radio is unable to opt out of the message (as with traffic broadcasts). This feature is built in to all RDS radios for use in national emergency broadcast systems, but short range units on emergency vehicles can prove an effective means of alerting traffic to their presence, although is not able to alert pedestrians and non-RDS radio users. [edit] Additional equipment Firefighters may also have a range of additional equipment available to them, which may include: * Two Way Radio - One of the most important pieces of equipment. Many services have moved from traditional UHF/VHF sets, which can be monitored externally, to more secure systems, such as those working on a GSM system, such as TETRA * Mobile Data Terminal - Many appliances are fitted with Mobile Data Terminals (or MDTs), which are connected wirelessly to a central computer, and enable firefighters to call up details such as incident logs, maps of locations or exclusion zones. * Evidence gathering CCTV - Some fire vehicles can be fitted with video cameras used to record activity. They may also be fitted with sound recording facilities. This is used for the protection of the crew (and evidence of any assaults or intimidation of the firefighters) or can be used as evidence relating to the incident itself. * Ramming pads - These rubberised pads are fitted to the chassis of the appliance, to allow the vehicle to be used as a battering ram, or to push other vehicles off the road in an emergency. [edit] Crew assignment Hazardous materials response vehicle of the A.C.T. Fire Brigade. Hazardous materials response vehicle of the A.C.T. Fire Brigade. Engines are normally staffed with at least three people - an officer, a driver who usually operates the pump, and a firefighter. Preferably, an engine will carry a second firefighter, to increase effectiveness in safely attacking a fire. In some countries, such as Finland, an engine carries the unit leader, an engineer and one or two pairs of firefighters [24]. Since firefighting takes places in a very hot and hostile environment with high risks, fire fighters work as pairs, and at least one more pair of firefighters is needed on scene for the safety and shifting. In the United Kingdom, firefighters are arranged in fire and rescue services - historically known as brigades, and usually organised at county, city or combined level. These are divided into either commands or areas, in some cases divisions, then stations, which range in size but in almost every instance have at least one pumping appliance. In addition, general purpose engine stations may have specialist vehicles such as turntable ladders, hydraulic platforms, foam tenders, etc. The number of personnel at a station varies depending on the number of applainces, and whether it is full time, day manned or retained. Generally, the crew of an average sized pump is around 5, but in any case it can be no less than four and no more than six. In cities of the United States, firefighters are generally deployed into fire companies specializing in certain tasks. Most common are engine companies and ladder, or quot;truck quot;, companies. In addition, large cities frequently staff rescue companies. By definition, each company is led by an officer (a captain or lieutenant) who commands several firefighters. Staffing of fire companies varies by jurisdiction and frequently by company type. In large cities, fire company staffing may vary from as few as three to as many as six personnel. In suburban and rural areas of the United States, the legal organization to which volunteers belong is usually called a company; one company may operate several pieces of apparatus. Duties of volunteers are often less specialized than those of city firefighters, because it is less predictable who will be available for a given emergency, so more flexibility is needed. In New Zealand the standard crew consists of four - the OIC, driver and two others. They are numbered OIC,1,2 and 3, with the OIC in the front passengers seat and number 1 directly behind them. number 3 is the driver. The crew has specific tasks in a water drill, decided by where they are sitting. At call-outs, there may be five on an appliance, but only four have allotted tasks with the fifth person being spare. History Ctesibius of Alexandria is credited with inventing the first fire pump around the second century B.C., and an example of a force-pump possible used for a fire-engine is mentioned by Heron of Alexandria. The fire pump was reinvented in Europe during the 1500s, reportedly used in Augsburg in 1518 and Nuremberg in 1657. A book of 1655 inventions mentions a steam engine (called fire engine) pump used to quot;raise a column of water 40 feet [12 m] quot;, but there was no mention of whether it was portable. 1906 horse-drawn steam fire engine in England. The water is pumped onto the fire by a double-acting onboard steam engine. 1906 horse-drawn steam fire engine in England. The water is pumped onto the fire by a double-acting onboard steam engine. Colonial laws in America required each house to have a bucket of water on the front stoop during fires at night. These buckets were intended for use by the initial quot;bucket brigade quot; that would throw the water at fires. Philadelphia obtained a hand-pumped fire engine in 1719, years after Boston's 1654 model appeared there, made by Joseph Jencks, but before New York's two engines arrived from London. By 1730, Newsham, in London, had made successful fire engines; the first used in New York City (in 1731) were of his make (six years before formation of the NYC volunteer fire department). The amount of manpower and skill necessary for firefighting prompted the institution of an organized fire company by Benjamin Franklin in 1737. Thomas Lote built the first fire engine made in America in 1743. Ericsson made a similar one in New York in 1840. John Ericsson is credited with building the first American steam-powered fire engine. John Braithwaite built the first steam fire-engine in Britain. Horse-drawn steam fire engine, New York, late 19th century Horse-drawn steam fire engine, New York, late 19th century Until the mid-19th century most fire engines were maneuvered by men, but the introduction of horse-drawn fire engines considerably improved the response time to incidents. The first self-propelled steam engine was built in New York in 1841. It was the target of sabotage by firefighters and its use was discontinued, and motorized fire engines did not become commonplace until the early 20th century. For many years firefighters sat on the sides of the fire engines, or even stood on the rear of the vehicles, exposed to the elements. This arrangement was uncomfortable and dangerous (some firefighters were thrown to their deaths when their fire engines made sharp turns on the road), and today nearly all fire engines have fully enclosed seating areas for their crews. [edit] Early pumpers Early pumpers used cisterns as a source of water. Water was later put into wooden pipes under the streets and a quot;fire plug quot; was pulled out of the top of the pipe when a suction hose was to be inserted. Later systems incorporated pressurized fire hydrants, where the pressure was increased when a fire alarm was sounded. This was found to be harmful to the system, and unreliable, and today's valved hydrant systems are kept under pressure at all times, although additional pressure may be added when needed. Pressurized hydrants eliminate much of the work in obtaining water for pumping through the engine and into the attack hoses. Many rural fire engines still rely upon cisterns or other sources for drafting water into the pumps. [edit] Early aerials Since the late 19th century, means of reaching tall structures have been devised. At first, manually-extendable ladders were used; as these grew in length (and weight) these were put onto two large wheels. When carried by fire engines these ladders had the wheels suspended behind the rear of the vehicle, making them a distinctive sight. Before long, the turntable ladder - which was even longer, mechanically-extendable, and installed directly onto a fire truck - made its appearance. Since the late 1930s, the longest turntable ladders have reached a height of 150 feet (45 metres), requiring the aforementioned quot;tiller trucks quot; to carry such ladders. After the Second World War turntable ladders were supplemented by the aerial work platform (sometimes called 'cherry picker'), a platform or bucket attached onto a mechanically-bending arm (or quot;snorkel quot;) installed onto a fire truck. While these could not reach the height of similar turntable ladders, the platforms could extend into previously unreachable quot;dead corners quot; of a burning building.
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